South America has diverse agricultural products, vast mineral wealth, and plentiful freshwater. It also has rich fisheries and ports on three bodies of water: the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The continent’s economy is centered on the export of natural resources.
Many crops thrive in the tropical climates of South America. Fruits such as avocado, pineapple, papaya, tangerine, guava and others are also native to tropical South America and two very important cash crops are coffee and cacao, which is the source of cocoa, the base ingredient in chocolate.
Many crops thrive in the tropical climates of South America. Fruits such as avocado, pineapple, papaya, tangerine, guava and others are also native to tropical South America and two very important cash crops are coffee and cacao, which is the source of cocoa, the base ingredient in chocolate.
Tangerine
Despite the tender quality of their fruit, mandarin orange trees (Citrus reticulata) are among the toughest in the citrus family. Suitable Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 8b through 11, mandarin trees are among the most cold-hardy and drought-tolerant of the sweet oranges. They're easy to grow -- rarely requiring pruning -- and attractive, bearing fragrant white spring flowers and shiny, evergreen leaves on sometimes thorny branches. Preferring well-drained soil, mandarin oranges need watering only in summer to help swell fruit that ripens in November and December. Grown on suitable sites with enough fertilizer, grafted trees begin to bear fruit three or four years after planting.
Water mandarin trees during summer at a rate of between 4 and 6 inches of water per month. During dry weather, water every seven to 10 days for optimum fruit development, supplying the total requirement over the month. Water around the drip line of tree branches where their feeder roots lie close to the surface. Mandarin trees are more drought-tolerant than other oranges.
Also, is important fertilize mandarin orange trees three times a year, in January or February, May and June. Apply 5 pounds of ammonium sulfate or 100 pounds of composted cow manure, divided between three applications, to 5-year-old trees, and reduced amounts to younger trees. A 2-year-old tree should receive a total of 1 1/4 pounds of ammonium sulfate or 25 pounds of composted cow manure. Spread the fertilizer evenly over the ground beneath the tree's drip line.
Water mandarin trees during summer at a rate of between 4 and 6 inches of water per month. During dry weather, water every seven to 10 days for optimum fruit development, supplying the total requirement over the month. Water around the drip line of tree branches where their feeder roots lie close to the surface. Mandarin trees are more drought-tolerant than other oranges.
Also, is important fertilize mandarin orange trees three times a year, in January or February, May and June. Apply 5 pounds of ammonium sulfate or 100 pounds of composted cow manure, divided between three applications, to 5-year-old trees, and reduced amounts to younger trees. A 2-year-old tree should receive a total of 1 1/4 pounds of ammonium sulfate or 25 pounds of composted cow manure. Spread the fertilizer evenly over the ground beneath the tree's drip line.
Sugarcane
Thebasicprocess
Sugar cane must be crushed to extract the juice. The crushing process must break up the hard nodes of the cane and flatten the stems. The juice is collected, filtered and sometimes treated and then boiled to drive off the excess water. The dried cane residue (bagasse) is often used as fuel for this process. The remaining liquid is allowed to set into a solid mass known as jaggery, gur, chancaca or panela. (Gurisused in therest of thisdocument.)
Yields
The yield of gur from sugar cane depends mostly on the quality of the cane and the efficiency of the extraction of juice. The table below gives some extreme values.
High quality cane
Poor quality cane
Juice per 100kg of cane
50kg
40kg
% sugar in juice
22
17
Gur per 100kg of cane
10kg
7kg
High quality cane has a good juice content with high sugar levels (20%+). Poor quality cane or cane that has been harvested early may have similar juice content but the sugar levels will be reduced. The efficiency with which juice can be extracted from the cane is limited by the technology used. The simple three roller crushers used by most artisanal producers will never extract more than 50kg of juice from each 100kg of cane. Yields are also improved by careful control of the boiling process. Boiling should be completed as rapidly as possible and the conditions kept as clean as possible.
Crushing
Most artisanal sugar producers use a simple crusher consisting of three metal rollers. This is driven by either animal or diesel power. Figures 1 and 2 show both types in operation in Bangladesh. A crusher driven by a single ox can be expected to process around 50kg of cane per hour. A 5HP diesel set could increase this to around 300kg per hour. In these pictures the rollers are set vertically; many machines have horizontal rollers. Suppliers of this machinery are given at the end of this technical brief.
Pineapple
Sugar cane must be crushed to extract the juice. The crushing process must break up the hard nodes of the cane and flatten the stems. The juice is collected, filtered and sometimes treated and then boiled to drive off the excess water. The dried cane residue (bagasse) is often used as fuel for this process. The remaining liquid is allowed to set into a solid mass known as jaggery, gur, chancaca or panela. (Gurisused in therest of thisdocument.)
Yields
The yield of gur from sugar cane depends mostly on the quality of the cane and the efficiency of the extraction of juice. The table below gives some extreme values.
High quality cane
Poor quality cane
Juice per 100kg of cane
50kg
40kg
% sugar in juice
22
17
Gur per 100kg of cane
10kg
7kg
High quality cane has a good juice content with high sugar levels (20%+). Poor quality cane or cane that has been harvested early may have similar juice content but the sugar levels will be reduced. The efficiency with which juice can be extracted from the cane is limited by the technology used. The simple three roller crushers used by most artisanal producers will never extract more than 50kg of juice from each 100kg of cane. Yields are also improved by careful control of the boiling process. Boiling should be completed as rapidly as possible and the conditions kept as clean as possible.
Crushing
Most artisanal sugar producers use a simple crusher consisting of three metal rollers. This is driven by either animal or diesel power. Figures 1 and 2 show both types in operation in Bangladesh. A crusher driven by a single ox can be expected to process around 50kg of cane per hour. A 5HP diesel set could increase this to around 300kg per hour. In these pictures the rollers are set vertically; many machines have horizontal rollers. Suppliers of this machinery are given at the end of this technical brief.
Pineapple
Pineapple is today one of the best-known of all tropical fruits. Unlike many fruit plants, pineapple is very well adapted to container culture--and the fresh pineapples in the local supermarket have everything you need to get started.
Climate And Soils
Pineapple grows best under uniformly warm temperatures year-round. While plants might survive 28 degrees, significant leaf damage would severely weaken the plant. Because of the likelihood of winter cold, pineapple would not be recommended for outdoor.
Soil And SiteSelection
Pineapple plants absolutely require soils with good internal drainage. Because they grow and fruit best in soils which are mildly acidic, pineapples can be problematic in the moderately alkaline soils in the Valley.
Given the small size of the plant, its sensitively to frost and its preference for well-drained, acidic soils, pineapples can be grown in 4- or 5-gallon planters or containers anywhere moving the plants indoors next to a sunny window during the colder winter months. Any good potting medium should be adequate for pineapple culture, as should any container having drainage holes at the bottom.
Varieties
There are varieties of pineapple with much better eating quality than Smooth Cayenne or Red Spanish. However, those with better eating quality do not ship very well, so they are not likely to be encountered in local markets. Among the better pineapples, however, are Natal Queen, weighing 2 to 3 pounds; Pernambuco (Eleuthera), weighing 2 to 4 pounds and Abakka, weighing 3 to 6 pounds. All three of these have spiny leaves. Having eaten all of these varieties at the peak of their maturity, the sweet, melting flesh of Pernambuco is a personal favorite.
Propagation
There are four kinds of propagation material on pineapple plants: ratoon suckers arise below ground, suckers originate in the leaf axils, slips grow from the fruit itself or along the stalk below the fruit and crowns are the leafy tops of the fruit. All four types work, although slips and suckers are preferred in commerce. Fortunately, each pineapple fruit in the supermarket comes with a crown which can be used to start the plant which will develop slips and suckers for subsequent use. Propagules should be cut from the mother plant and set aside for a week or two to cure. In the case of crowns, any adhering flesh should be cut away.
Planting And Care
For initial planting, one-gallon pots are more than adequate, with transfer to a larger container as the need arises. After curing, the lowest leaves should be pulled off so that the base of the propagule can be planted deeply enough that it won't topple over. Water thoroughly at planting and then lightly a couple of times a week. For best results, the plant should be in full sun and best establishment will occur during the warmer months of the year.
Once the propagule begins to put out new leaves, a complete, soluble fertilizer should be applied monthly, according to directions which come with the fertilizer. General houseplant fertilizer is sufficient. Because the propagule will require several months to develop its root system, the water and the soluble fertilizer should be poured or sprayed over the plant so that some of it will collect in the leaf axils. After about six months, however, the fertilizer solution should be poured into the soil and not over the plant as the latter can result in damage to the developing bud.
Strawberry
Climate And Soils
Pineapple grows best under uniformly warm temperatures year-round. While plants might survive 28 degrees, significant leaf damage would severely weaken the plant. Because of the likelihood of winter cold, pineapple would not be recommended for outdoor.
Soil And SiteSelection
Pineapple plants absolutely require soils with good internal drainage. Because they grow and fruit best in soils which are mildly acidic, pineapples can be problematic in the moderately alkaline soils in the Valley.
Given the small size of the plant, its sensitively to frost and its preference for well-drained, acidic soils, pineapples can be grown in 4- or 5-gallon planters or containers anywhere moving the plants indoors next to a sunny window during the colder winter months. Any good potting medium should be adequate for pineapple culture, as should any container having drainage holes at the bottom.
Varieties
There are varieties of pineapple with much better eating quality than Smooth Cayenne or Red Spanish. However, those with better eating quality do not ship very well, so they are not likely to be encountered in local markets. Among the better pineapples, however, are Natal Queen, weighing 2 to 3 pounds; Pernambuco (Eleuthera), weighing 2 to 4 pounds and Abakka, weighing 3 to 6 pounds. All three of these have spiny leaves. Having eaten all of these varieties at the peak of their maturity, the sweet, melting flesh of Pernambuco is a personal favorite.
Propagation
There are four kinds of propagation material on pineapple plants: ratoon suckers arise below ground, suckers originate in the leaf axils, slips grow from the fruit itself or along the stalk below the fruit and crowns are the leafy tops of the fruit. All four types work, although slips and suckers are preferred in commerce. Fortunately, each pineapple fruit in the supermarket comes with a crown which can be used to start the plant which will develop slips and suckers for subsequent use. Propagules should be cut from the mother plant and set aside for a week or two to cure. In the case of crowns, any adhering flesh should be cut away.
Planting And Care
For initial planting, one-gallon pots are more than adequate, with transfer to a larger container as the need arises. After curing, the lowest leaves should be pulled off so that the base of the propagule can be planted deeply enough that it won't topple over. Water thoroughly at planting and then lightly a couple of times a week. For best results, the plant should be in full sun and best establishment will occur during the warmer months of the year.
Once the propagule begins to put out new leaves, a complete, soluble fertilizer should be applied monthly, according to directions which come with the fertilizer. General houseplant fertilizer is sufficient. Because the propagule will require several months to develop its root system, the water and the soluble fertilizer should be poured or sprayed over the plant so that some of it will collect in the leaf axils. After about six months, however, the fertilizer solution should be poured into the soil and not over the plant as the latter can result in damage to the developing bud.
Strawberry
Strawberries require a fairly long-term commitment, since they are normally harvested during their second, third, and fourth seasons after planting. Day-neutral (everbearing) cultivars can be lightly cropped and harvested during the year of planting in some areas. Commercial plantings are normally replaced at least every 3 or 4 years. Strawberries are very labor-intensive, and establishmentand operating costs can be high.
Commercial success depends first of all on selecting and preparing an excellent site. Strawberries require well-drained soil at least 8 inches deep, preferably more. Raised beds are used for sites with shallow soil. An optimum site has a slope of about 2 to 4 percent to provide for water and cold air drainage. High organic matter concentrations are highly desirable. Optimum soil pH is between 5.0 and 7.0 (pH 7.0 is neutral).
Strawberries are less sensitive to soil pH and salts than are raspberries or blueberries, and production is possible on slightly alkaline soils. Strawberries cannot tolerate drought and require irrigation. Matching suitable strawberry cultivars to your site is also critical. There are hundreds of strawberry cultivars available, many of which are suitable for commercial production in Idaho.
Strawberry cultivars vary widely in their cold hardiness, from 25°F to -50°F. The most popular commercial cultivars for northern climates are June-bearing types, which produce a single crop of berries during the spring or early summer beginning 1 year after planting.
Day-neutral cultivars are also available, which flower and bear fruit throughout the growing season and bear a light crop the year of planting. Double-cropping or traditional everbearing cultivars begin bearing 1 year after planting, but most are more suitable for home gardens than for commercial production. Peak yields for all cultivars in cold climate, short growing season areas are normally obtained during the year after planting and decrease during subsequent seasons due to buildups of pests and diseases.
Since strawberries are delicate and perishable, for fresh use they must be picked at least every other day during the harvest, be handled as little as possible and be cooled immediately after picking. Under ideal conditions, strawberries have a shelf life of 8 to 10 days. Rainy weather during harvest increases the incidence of fruit rots, decreasing yields.
Management
Strawberry production is complex, and intensive management is needed to produce a successful commercial crop. Growers must know the physiological needs of the crop, proper cultural practices, and identification and control of insects, diseases, weeds and pests. Cultural practices vary tremendously, according to growing region, production system, and cultivar.
Prospective growers must understand financing, cash flow, business management, and marketing; attention to detail and meticulous record keeping are essential. Prospective growers should also find out if local and state permits are required for producing and marketing their crop. Insurance may also be needed before food products are sold.
Commercial success depends first of all on selecting and preparing an excellent site. Strawberries require well-drained soil at least 8 inches deep, preferably more. Raised beds are used for sites with shallow soil. An optimum site has a slope of about 2 to 4 percent to provide for water and cold air drainage. High organic matter concentrations are highly desirable. Optimum soil pH is between 5.0 and 7.0 (pH 7.0 is neutral).
Strawberries are less sensitive to soil pH and salts than are raspberries or blueberries, and production is possible on slightly alkaline soils. Strawberries cannot tolerate drought and require irrigation. Matching suitable strawberry cultivars to your site is also critical. There are hundreds of strawberry cultivars available, many of which are suitable for commercial production in Idaho.
Strawberry cultivars vary widely in their cold hardiness, from 25°F to -50°F. The most popular commercial cultivars for northern climates are June-bearing types, which produce a single crop of berries during the spring or early summer beginning 1 year after planting.
Day-neutral cultivars are also available, which flower and bear fruit throughout the growing season and bear a light crop the year of planting. Double-cropping or traditional everbearing cultivars begin bearing 1 year after planting, but most are more suitable for home gardens than for commercial production. Peak yields for all cultivars in cold climate, short growing season areas are normally obtained during the year after planting and decrease during subsequent seasons due to buildups of pests and diseases.
Since strawberries are delicate and perishable, for fresh use they must be picked at least every other day during the harvest, be handled as little as possible and be cooled immediately after picking. Under ideal conditions, strawberries have a shelf life of 8 to 10 days. Rainy weather during harvest increases the incidence of fruit rots, decreasing yields.
Management
Strawberry production is complex, and intensive management is needed to produce a successful commercial crop. Growers must know the physiological needs of the crop, proper cultural practices, and identification and control of insects, diseases, weeds and pests. Cultural practices vary tremendously, according to growing region, production system, and cultivar.
Prospective growers must understand financing, cash flow, business management, and marketing; attention to detail and meticulous record keeping are essential. Prospective growers should also find out if local and state permits are required for producing and marketing their crop. Insurance may also be needed before food products are sold.
Avocado
The Avocado tree is an evergreen tree that attains heights of 40 to 80 feet and has many branches. The leaves are elliptic or oval in shape and 3 to 10 inches long. Flowers are small, greenish, and perfect (has both male and female parts). The avocado fruit may be round, pear shaped, or oblong, and the skin of the fruit may vary in texture and color. The skin may be pliable to woody, smooth to rough, and green-yellow, reddish-purple, purple, or black in color. The flesh of the fruit is greenish yellow to bright yellow when ripe and buttery in consistency, but inferior varieties may be fibrous. The avocado fruit has one large seed which makes up to 10 - 25% of the fruit weight. The fruit of different avocado varieties may vary in moisture and oil content, from less than 5% oil to more than 30% oil.
SoilTypes And Location
Avocado can be grown on a wide range of soil types, but requires good drainage as it does not withstand waterlogging. Annual rainfall of 50 inches that is well distributed over the year is adequate. Poor drainage and soil pH of less than 6.2 are favorable conditions for the development of Phytophthora root rot.
Areas with high winds are undesirable because avocado wood is brittle and flowers and fruits may be damaged. Areas along the shoreline are also undesirable because avocado trees are sensitive to sodium chloride (salt).
Cultural Practices
Trees should be spaced 25 to 35 feet apart, depending on the cultivar, for the best management they should not remain interplanted with other fruit crops when mature. Organic mulches or herbicides are recommended for weed control. Cultivation for weed control should be avoided or should be done as shallow as possible to avoid damage to the avocado root system. Pruning is usually unnecessary except to shape young trees and remove dead branches.
Harvesting
Avocados are harvested with hand-held poles and baskets. Determining when to harvest avocados can be difficult and may require experience. A slight change in skin color, loss of glossiness, or a brown seed coat is a sign of maturity. Pruning shears or special clippers should be used to harvest avocados.Thepedicelshouldalsoremainattachedtothefruit.
Postharvest
The fruits are allowed to ripen off the tree. Softening of the fruit indicates ripeness. Determining ripeness of thick-skinned varieties may be difficult for the untrained. The fruit cannot be picked too early or the fruit will shrivel and fail to ripen. Fruits of some cultivars may be refrigerated for several days after ripening without damage.
SoilTypes And Location
Avocado can be grown on a wide range of soil types, but requires good drainage as it does not withstand waterlogging. Annual rainfall of 50 inches that is well distributed over the year is adequate. Poor drainage and soil pH of less than 6.2 are favorable conditions for the development of Phytophthora root rot.
Areas with high winds are undesirable because avocado wood is brittle and flowers and fruits may be damaged. Areas along the shoreline are also undesirable because avocado trees are sensitive to sodium chloride (salt).
Cultural Practices
Trees should be spaced 25 to 35 feet apart, depending on the cultivar, for the best management they should not remain interplanted with other fruit crops when mature. Organic mulches or herbicides are recommended for weed control. Cultivation for weed control should be avoided or should be done as shallow as possible to avoid damage to the avocado root system. Pruning is usually unnecessary except to shape young trees and remove dead branches.
Harvesting
Avocados are harvested with hand-held poles and baskets. Determining when to harvest avocados can be difficult and may require experience. A slight change in skin color, loss of glossiness, or a brown seed coat is a sign of maturity. Pruning shears or special clippers should be used to harvest avocados.Thepedicelshouldalsoremainattachedtothefruit.
Postharvest
The fruits are allowed to ripen off the tree. Softening of the fruit indicates ripeness. Determining ripeness of thick-skinned varieties may be difficult for the untrained. The fruit cannot be picked too early or the fruit will shrivel and fail to ripen. Fruits of some cultivars may be refrigerated for several days after ripening without damage.
http://agmarknet.nic.in/mandarin.pdf
http://sugarcane.org/sustainability/producing-food-and-fuel
http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sugarcane-profile/
http://www.tropicalpermaculture.com/pineapple-growing.html
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/organicexports/docs/Organic_sugarloaf_pineapple_manual.pdf
http://www.porlapuerta.com.ve/aniversario/anniversary/150519/tasty-dignified-and-creative-meals-imp
http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/strawberries/commodity-strawberry-profile/
http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/avocados/
VENEZUELA AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
In 2001, agriculture accounted for 5% of the GDP, engaging8.8% of the economically active population. Venezuela continues to rely heavily on food and agricultural imports. Despite abundant resources favorable to agricultural production, 70% of cereals and 98% of oilseeds consumed in Venezuela are imported.
Venezuela does not have the rich soil of many other Latin American countries. In 1998, 3,490,000 hectares (8,624,000 acres), or 4% of the total land area, were used for temporary or permanent crops. The most highly developed agricultural region is the basin of Lake Valencia, west of Caracas and inland from Puerto Cabello. The principal crop of this area is coffee. Before oil came to dominate the economy, coffee accounted for 40–60% of all income from exports.
Coffee (Coffeaarabica)
In 2001, agriculture accounted for 5% of the GDP, engaging8.8% of the economically active population. Venezuela continues to rely heavily on food and agricultural imports. Despite abundant resources favorable to agricultural production, 70% of cereals and 98% of oilseeds consumed in Venezuela are imported.
Venezuela does not have the rich soil of many other Latin American countries. In 1998, 3,490,000 hectares (8,624,000 acres), or 4% of the total land area, were used for temporary or permanent crops. The most highly developed agricultural region is the basin of Lake Valencia, west of Caracas and inland from Puerto Cabello. The principal crop of this area is coffee. Before oil came to dominate the economy, coffee accounted for 40–60% of all income from exports.
Coffee (Coffeaarabica)
In Venezuela, coffee and cocoa have been the most important cash crops for trading and exports since the 18th century until oil was exploited, providing giving jobs for more than 60000 families in the highlands and their slopes, which constitute more than 35% of the land, where no other cash crop can be harvested without causing erosion. National coffee yields of 7.5 quintals (1q=100 pounds) per hectare are considered low (MAT, 2002) and for this reason research has been carried out to rationally and economically increase crop yields.
Coffee (Coffeaarabica) is defined as an autogamous plant with some degree of cross-pollination with insect intervention. The great majority of coffee varieties have very aromatic flowers that produce abundant nectar and pollen that attracts insects (Henao, 1991). Non-attractive flowers and a short blooming period are cited as limiting factors in the use of honeybees for coffee crops (Couto, 1995). However, even though the blooming period is short, there are two sequences in it, one period of dense flower populations that bloom simultaneously followed by another short period of blooming where the honey bees can get nectar from the extra-floral nectaries located on the edge of the leaves (Sánchez, 1995). In spite of being considered by beekeepers in Venezuela as an excellent plant for honey production, preliminary work by Manrique (1996) has not led to this conclusion.
While beekeepers agree on the use of honeybees to pollinate coffee crops, Badilla and Ramírez (1991) indicated that cross-pollination of coffee is still un-explained. On the other hand, Gómez (1986) pointed out that C. arabica species are self pollinated, but the use of honeybees would increase yields. An adult coffee plant has from 10000 to 50000 flowers, but almost 90% of them fall due to pollen incompatibility, defects of the embryonal sac or no pollination at all. Amaral (1972) suggested that a coffee plant can have different types of flowers in the same blooming period, and Badilla and Ramírez (1991) add that the loss of unmatured grains can be caused by a hormonal stimuli produced by cross-pollination with other plants of the same species that promotes the phenomenon.
Check more:
http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S0378-18442002000800005&script=sci_arttext
The coffee plant is a woody perennial evergreen dicotyledon that belongs to the Rubiaceae family. Because it grows to a relatively large height, it is more accurately described as a coffee tree. It has a main vertical trunk (orthotropic) and primary, secondary, and tertiary horizontal branches (plagiotropic).
Coffee Plant Growth and Development
Three to four years after the coffee is planted, sweetly smelling flowers grow in clusters in the axils of the coffee leaves. Fruit is produced only in the new tissue. The Coffea Arabica coffee plant is self-pollinating, whereas the Robusta coffee plant depends on cross pollination. About 6-8 weeks after each coffee flower is fertilized, cell division occurs and the coffee fruit remains as a pin head for a period that is dependent upon the climate. The ovaries will then develop into drupes in a rapid growth period that takes about 15 weeks after flowering. During this time the integument takes on the shape of the final coffee bean. After the rapid growth period the integument and parchment are fully grown and will not increase in size. The endosperm remains small until about 12 weeks after flowering. At this time it will suppress, consume, and replace the integument. The remnants of the integument are what make up the silverskin. The endosperm will have completely filled the cavity made by the integument nineteen weeks after flowing. The endosperm is now white and moist, but will gain dry matter during the next several months. During this time the endosperm attracts more than seventy percent of the total photsynthesates produced by the tree. The mesocarps will expand to form the sweet pulp that surrounds the coffee bean. The coffee cherry will change color from green to red about thirty to thirty-five weeks after flowing.
Coffee (Coffeaarabica) is defined as an autogamous plant with some degree of cross-pollination with insect intervention. The great majority of coffee varieties have very aromatic flowers that produce abundant nectar and pollen that attracts insects (Henao, 1991). Non-attractive flowers and a short blooming period are cited as limiting factors in the use of honeybees for coffee crops (Couto, 1995). However, even though the blooming period is short, there are two sequences in it, one period of dense flower populations that bloom simultaneously followed by another short period of blooming where the honey bees can get nectar from the extra-floral nectaries located on the edge of the leaves (Sánchez, 1995). In spite of being considered by beekeepers in Venezuela as an excellent plant for honey production, preliminary work by Manrique (1996) has not led to this conclusion.
While beekeepers agree on the use of honeybees to pollinate coffee crops, Badilla and Ramírez (1991) indicated that cross-pollination of coffee is still un-explained. On the other hand, Gómez (1986) pointed out that C. arabica species are self pollinated, but the use of honeybees would increase yields. An adult coffee plant has from 10000 to 50000 flowers, but almost 90% of them fall due to pollen incompatibility, defects of the embryonal sac or no pollination at all. Amaral (1972) suggested that a coffee plant can have different types of flowers in the same blooming period, and Badilla and Ramírez (1991) add that the loss of unmatured grains can be caused by a hormonal stimuli produced by cross-pollination with other plants of the same species that promotes the phenomenon.
Check more:
http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S0378-18442002000800005&script=sci_arttext
The coffee plant is a woody perennial evergreen dicotyledon that belongs to the Rubiaceae family. Because it grows to a relatively large height, it is more accurately described as a coffee tree. It has a main vertical trunk (orthotropic) and primary, secondary, and tertiary horizontal branches (plagiotropic).
Coffee Plant Growth and Development
Three to four years after the coffee is planted, sweetly smelling flowers grow in clusters in the axils of the coffee leaves. Fruit is produced only in the new tissue. The Coffea Arabica coffee plant is self-pollinating, whereas the Robusta coffee plant depends on cross pollination. About 6-8 weeks after each coffee flower is fertilized, cell division occurs and the coffee fruit remains as a pin head for a period that is dependent upon the climate. The ovaries will then develop into drupes in a rapid growth period that takes about 15 weeks after flowering. During this time the integument takes on the shape of the final coffee bean. After the rapid growth period the integument and parchment are fully grown and will not increase in size. The endosperm remains small until about 12 weeks after flowering. At this time it will suppress, consume, and replace the integument. The remnants of the integument are what make up the silverskin. The endosperm will have completely filled the cavity made by the integument nineteen weeks after flowing. The endosperm is now white and moist, but will gain dry matter during the next several months. During this time the endosperm attracts more than seventy percent of the total photsynthesates produced by the tree. The mesocarps will expand to form the sweet pulp that surrounds the coffee bean. The coffee cherry will change color from green to red about thirty to thirty-five weeks after flowing.
The following links provide information regarding coffee plant diseases:
1. Coffee Leaf Rust
2. Coffee Berry Disease
3. Bacterial Blight
4. Nematodes
For more information check it out:http://www.coffeeresearch.org/coffee/homegrowing.htm
TEN STEPS TO COFFEE
1. Planting
2. Harvesting the Cherries
3. Processing the Cherries
4. Drying the Beans
5. Milling the Beans
6. Exporting the Beans
7. Tasting the Coffee
8. Roasting the Coffee
9. Grinding Coffee
10. Brewing Coffee
Check each step here: http://www.ncausa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=69
Carrots
Carrot varieties are described as early or maincrop varieties, but also either short-root or long-root varieties. These names give you an idea of when they will crop and the type of soil they're suitable for. Carrots and parsnips grow best in light, sandy soil so if your soil is heavy clay, stony, chalky or doesn't drain particularly well, concentrate on the maincrop, short-root types which cope better with these conditions.
Early carrot varieties take around 12 weeks to mature and maincrop carrot varieties are ready in around 16 weeks. Maincrops take up the most space in the garden, but they tend to be the best varieties to grow if you want some for storage.
Carrots develop normally within a great range of temperatures and are grown throughout the world with the exception of the very warmest areas. Root growth is fastest at a temperature between 15 ºC and 18 ºC, while optimum temperatures for shoot growth are somewhat higher. Seeds of carrot may germinate at low temperatures but the germination period is shorter at higher temperatures and a soil temperature of at least 10 ºC is therefore recommended. Carrots are tolerant of long days but need low temperatures to induce flowering.
Carrots are fairly fussy growers. They love light, stone free, well drained, fertile soils with plenty of well rotted organic matter in them. Rich sandy peaty soils are perfect in providing the best conditions for the carrot roots to penetrate deeply and to swell.
The pH value should 6.5 to 7.5 for best results. Potassium promotes solid, sweet carrots. Wood ashes contain soluble potassium which reaches the plant quickly. Excess Nitrogen causes branching and hairy, fibrous roots.
It is much harder to grow good carrots in heavy clay soils or soils which are compacted or stony. Such conditions can cause the forking of roots. Water logged sites are also less than ideal. If you have a heavy soil, dig in plenty of manure several months before planting. Never work fresh manure into the soil as this encourages sappy growth and forking of roots. Add leaf mould to lighten heavy soil and rake in Nitrogen fertiliser before sowing a crop in poor soil.
Early carrots appreciate a sheltered position but main crop need an open sunny site. Carrots should be rotated around the garden to avoid the build up of diseases. It is recommended that you grow them in a different bed each year over at least a three year cycle.
Soil temperature can be critical for successful carrots. At temperatures below 5 ºC they will struggle to germinate. Slightly higher temperatures and they could take up to 35 days to start. If you wait until the soil is 10 ºC germination will occur within ten days. Basically if the soil is chilly to touch do not plant.
Curiously even within a variety a carrot's colour and shape can vary according to the type of soil and commencement temperature. Lower temperatures give yellower carrots and reduced size and shape.
Proper watering can make a difference. Carrots need 2cm of water from rainfall each week during the growing season. Soaking well when watering helps to promote good root development. The domesticated honeybee may get more glory, but when it comes to pollinating carrots, one tiny alfalfa leafcutter bee can do the job of 20 of its larger, noisier, more irritable cousins, says a U.S. Department of Agriculture researcher.
Not all of the chemical constituents of carrots are for our health; some appear to be there for the health of the carrot itself. One reason that the carrot can be stored for long periods of time, such as over winter in a root cellar, is that the carrot has a mechanism to guard against microbial decomposition (rot).
There are three enemies of carrot storage: wilt, re-growth and rot. The first of these is no problem if the carrot is stored where the humidity is high. The second is of little consequence if the carrot is stored at 0 to 5°C.
The carrot itself contributes much toward conquering the last enemy, rot. At the present time, scientists are busy determining how the disease response mechanism of the carrot operates. There appear to be three lines of resistance which the carrot uses, based on the chemicals contained within the carrot and its skin. Read more about the Carrot Disease Response Mechanism and the contributory elements. How do Carrots produce seeds?
Early carrot varieties take around 12 weeks to mature and maincrop carrot varieties are ready in around 16 weeks. Maincrops take up the most space in the garden, but they tend to be the best varieties to grow if you want some for storage.
Carrots develop normally within a great range of temperatures and are grown throughout the world with the exception of the very warmest areas. Root growth is fastest at a temperature between 15 ºC and 18 ºC, while optimum temperatures for shoot growth are somewhat higher. Seeds of carrot may germinate at low temperatures but the germination period is shorter at higher temperatures and a soil temperature of at least 10 ºC is therefore recommended. Carrots are tolerant of long days but need low temperatures to induce flowering.
Carrots are fairly fussy growers. They love light, stone free, well drained, fertile soils with plenty of well rotted organic matter in them. Rich sandy peaty soils are perfect in providing the best conditions for the carrot roots to penetrate deeply and to swell.
The pH value should 6.5 to 7.5 for best results. Potassium promotes solid, sweet carrots. Wood ashes contain soluble potassium which reaches the plant quickly. Excess Nitrogen causes branching and hairy, fibrous roots.
It is much harder to grow good carrots in heavy clay soils or soils which are compacted or stony. Such conditions can cause the forking of roots. Water logged sites are also less than ideal. If you have a heavy soil, dig in plenty of manure several months before planting. Never work fresh manure into the soil as this encourages sappy growth and forking of roots. Add leaf mould to lighten heavy soil and rake in Nitrogen fertiliser before sowing a crop in poor soil.
Early carrots appreciate a sheltered position but main crop need an open sunny site. Carrots should be rotated around the garden to avoid the build up of diseases. It is recommended that you grow them in a different bed each year over at least a three year cycle.
Soil temperature can be critical for successful carrots. At temperatures below 5 ºC they will struggle to germinate. Slightly higher temperatures and they could take up to 35 days to start. If you wait until the soil is 10 ºC germination will occur within ten days. Basically if the soil is chilly to touch do not plant.
Curiously even within a variety a carrot's colour and shape can vary according to the type of soil and commencement temperature. Lower temperatures give yellower carrots and reduced size and shape.
Proper watering can make a difference. Carrots need 2cm of water from rainfall each week during the growing season. Soaking well when watering helps to promote good root development. The domesticated honeybee may get more glory, but when it comes to pollinating carrots, one tiny alfalfa leafcutter bee can do the job of 20 of its larger, noisier, more irritable cousins, says a U.S. Department of Agriculture researcher.
Not all of the chemical constituents of carrots are for our health; some appear to be there for the health of the carrot itself. One reason that the carrot can be stored for long periods of time, such as over winter in a root cellar, is that the carrot has a mechanism to guard against microbial decomposition (rot).
There are three enemies of carrot storage: wilt, re-growth and rot. The first of these is no problem if the carrot is stored where the humidity is high. The second is of little consequence if the carrot is stored at 0 to 5°C.
The carrot itself contributes much toward conquering the last enemy, rot. At the present time, scientists are busy determining how the disease response mechanism of the carrot operates. There appear to be three lines of resistance which the carrot uses, based on the chemicals contained within the carrot and its skin. Read more about the Carrot Disease Response Mechanism and the contributory elements. How do Carrots produce seeds?
More information:
http://www.heirloom-organics.com/guide/va/guidetogrowingcarrots.html
Types of Carrots to Try
Nantes is fast and easy to grow, and adapt to a range of climates and soils. Chantenay carrots develop stocky roots that become sweeter as the soil cools in the fall. Miniature carrots have small, shallow roots that are often quite sweet. They’re good for heavy clay soil. Imperator carrots are long and need deep, sandy soil to thrive. Danvers carrots make great juice, and the sturdy roots store well, too.
See more:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/basics/techniques/growfruitandveg_growingcarrots1.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/basics/techniques/growfruitandveg_growingcarrots1.shtml
http://www.heirloom-organics.com/guide/va/guidetogrowingcarrots.html
Types of Carrots to Try
Nantes is fast and easy to grow, and adapt to a range of climates and soils. Chantenay carrots develop stocky roots that become sweeter as the soil cools in the fall. Miniature carrots have small, shallow roots that are often quite sweet. They’re good for heavy clay soil. Imperator carrots are long and need deep, sandy soil to thrive. Danvers carrots make great juice, and the sturdy roots store well, too.
See more:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/basics/techniques/growfruitandveg_growingcarrots1.shtmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/basics/techniques/growfruitandveg_growingcarrots1.shtml
Banana
The banana is a perennial plant that replaces itself. Bananas do not grow from a seed but from a bulb or rhizome. The time between planting a banana plant and the harvest of the banana bunch is from 9 to 12 months. The flower appears in the sixth or seventh month. Bananas are available throughout the year - they do not have a growing 'season'.
Bananas are grown in tropical regions where the average temperature is 80° F (27° C) and the yearly rainfall is between 78 and 98 inches. They require moist soil with good drainage. In fact, most bananas exported are grown within 30 degrees either side of the equator.
Plantations are predominant in Latin America and they require huge investment in infrastructure and technology for transport, irrigation, drainage and packing facilities. Smallholder production is less capital intensive and more labour intensive. This system is present mainly in the Eastern Caribbean because, due to topographical factors, it is not possible to use the plantation system.
Harvesting and ripening
After nine months, the bananas are harvested while still green. At the packhouse they are inspected and sorted for export. Buyers of fruit in the UK want unbruised bananas and so very high standards are set. If the bananas do not meet these standards they are usually sold locally at a much lower price.
They are then transported to ports to be packed in refrigerated ships called reefers (bananas take between six and twelve days to get to the UK/Europe). They are transported at a temperature of 13.3°C in order to increase their shelf life, and require careful handling in order to prevent damage. Humidity, ventilation and temperature conditions are carefully monitored in order to maintain quality. When the bananas arrive at their destination port they are first sent to ripening rooms (aprocess involving ethylene gas) and then sent to the shops.
Dessert banana production for export (around 15 million tonnes per year) is of huge economic importance for many countries in the South. It relies on intensive monocultures, which are sustained by using massive quantities of toxic chemicals which are hazardous to both workers and the environment. This industrial-scale production also results in problematic waste management issues. Research led by CIRAD (International Agricultural Research for Development Centre) demonstrates that significant agrochemical reduction can be achieved while maintaining good levels of productivity and quality. Organic systems are increasingly being viewed as a viable and important alternative to conventional production in some regions.
See more: http://www.bananalink.org.uk/why-pineapples-matter
General Guide in Banana Cultivation
Growing bananas does not require much effort but to achieve high yields requires skills, dedication, and proper planting methods. Below are some pertinent guides that any Banana growers should be aware of. The list is not exhaustive and certainly requires some adjustments depending on the variety of the Bananas.
1. Agro Climate y Soil
Agro Climate
Bananas need warm subtropical climate, adequate moisture and protection from wind. Most varieties of Bananas grow best with 12 hours of bright light and high humidity of 50% or higher. The ideal temperature range is around 26-30°C (78-86F) with RH regime of 75-85%. Growth begins at 18ºC, reaches optimal growth at 27ºC and stop entirely when temperature reaches 38ºC. Although Bananas grow best in bright sunlight, high temperature will scorch leaves and fruit.
For best appearance and higher photosynthetic rate, wind protection is advisable. High velocity wind which exceeds 80km per hour damages the leaf. Bananas are also vulnerable to being blown over due to the weight of the stem of fruit. Thus, Propping should be done during the last few months of its life cycle before harvest.
Soil
Bananas are grown in tropical regions where the average temperature is 80° F (27° C) and the yearly rainfall is between 78 and 98 inches. They require moist soil with good drainage. In fact, most bananas exported are grown within 30 degrees either side of the equator.
Plantations are predominant in Latin America and they require huge investment in infrastructure and technology for transport, irrigation, drainage and packing facilities. Smallholder production is less capital intensive and more labour intensive. This system is present mainly in the Eastern Caribbean because, due to topographical factors, it is not possible to use the plantation system.
Harvesting and ripening
After nine months, the bananas are harvested while still green. At the packhouse they are inspected and sorted for export. Buyers of fruit in the UK want unbruised bananas and so very high standards are set. If the bananas do not meet these standards they are usually sold locally at a much lower price.
They are then transported to ports to be packed in refrigerated ships called reefers (bananas take between six and twelve days to get to the UK/Europe). They are transported at a temperature of 13.3°C in order to increase their shelf life, and require careful handling in order to prevent damage. Humidity, ventilation and temperature conditions are carefully monitored in order to maintain quality. When the bananas arrive at their destination port they are first sent to ripening rooms (aprocess involving ethylene gas) and then sent to the shops.
Dessert banana production for export (around 15 million tonnes per year) is of huge economic importance for many countries in the South. It relies on intensive monocultures, which are sustained by using massive quantities of toxic chemicals which are hazardous to both workers and the environment. This industrial-scale production also results in problematic waste management issues. Research led by CIRAD (International Agricultural Research for Development Centre) demonstrates that significant agrochemical reduction can be achieved while maintaining good levels of productivity and quality. Organic systems are increasingly being viewed as a viable and important alternative to conventional production in some regions.
See more: http://www.bananalink.org.uk/why-pineapples-matter
General Guide in Banana Cultivation
Growing bananas does not require much effort but to achieve high yields requires skills, dedication, and proper planting methods. Below are some pertinent guides that any Banana growers should be aware of. The list is not exhaustive and certainly requires some adjustments depending on the variety of the Bananas.
1. Agro Climate y Soil
Agro Climate
Bananas need warm subtropical climate, adequate moisture and protection from wind. Most varieties of Bananas grow best with 12 hours of bright light and high humidity of 50% or higher. The ideal temperature range is around 26-30°C (78-86F) with RH regime of 75-85%. Growth begins at 18ºC, reaches optimal growth at 27ºC and stop entirely when temperature reaches 38ºC. Although Bananas grow best in bright sunlight, high temperature will scorch leaves and fruit.
For best appearance and higher photosynthetic rate, wind protection is advisable. High velocity wind which exceeds 80km per hour damages the leaf. Bananas are also vulnerable to being blown over due to the weight of the stem of fruit. Thus, Propping should be done during the last few months of its life cycle before harvest.
Soil
Bananas need rich, moisture and well-drained soil with 40% clay, 75% silt, 85% loam. Bananas prefer a more acidic soil with pH between 6-7.5. Low pH soil makes banana more susceptible to Panama disease. Avoid soil that is sandy, salty, nutritionally deficient and ill-drained soil. If soil is not in the most favorable condition, improve it! Light sandy soil can be improved by placing mulch around the Banana plants. This will improve water retention and prevent nutrients from percolating quickly into the soil. Nutritionally deficient soil can be improved by incorporating organic matter to the soil before you plant your Bananas and then mulch them thickly. This process should be repeated as often as possible. Bananas do not tolerate waterlogging because its roots will rot. This however can be resolved by planting the Bananas in raised beds.
Pest and Disease Management
Bananas are prompt to viral diseases, fungal diseases and pest thereby reduces production, quality and yield. The following table shows the major pest and diseases that Banana growers should be wary of.
Pest and Disease Management
Bananas are prompt to viral diseases, fungal diseases and pest thereby reduces production, quality and yield. The following table shows the major pest and diseases that Banana growers should be wary of.
Harvest when fingers are fairly evenly rounded. General practice is to harvest when fingers of second hand are ¾ rounded. Alternative, for tree-ripened fruit, cut only those hands that are ripen and leave the remaining for other day. These Bananas taste the best. However, this process is time consuming and not feasible. The mother plant should be cut off after harvest as the plant can never produce again.
It is advisable to place harvested bunch in well padded basket before transporting to the collection site because Bananas are easily bruised and this will inevitably reduce the quality of the fruit. Once harvested, the bunch should be kept out of light, in cool and shady place. The process of ripening can be accelerated by covering the bunch with plastic sleeve together with a ripe fruit as it releases small amount of heat and ethylene which helps initiate and stimulate ripening. Depending on the demand of the market, hands are often cut into units of 6 – 15 fingers or left on stalks and sold to retailers.
It is advisable to place harvested bunch in well padded basket before transporting to the collection site because Bananas are easily bruised and this will inevitably reduce the quality of the fruit. Once harvested, the bunch should be kept out of light, in cool and shady place. The process of ripening can be accelerated by covering the bunch with plastic sleeve together with a ripe fruit as it releases small amount of heat and ethylene which helps initiate and stimulate ripening. Depending on the demand of the market, hands are often cut into units of 6 – 15 fingers or left on stalks and sold to retailers.
More:
http://www.bananaplanters.com/site/banana-cultivation-guide/
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-portfolio/production-marketing-of-bananas-tree-crops/
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